The code stated that covering the head was a sign of a God-fearing Jew and especially important during study and prayer Orakh khayyim 2,2; In Christian countries, the Jewish covering of the head in the synagogue evolved as contrary to the practice of uncovering one's head as a sign of reverence, while in the Muslim world, Jews were no exception to the general practice of covering their heads.
In both Christian and Muslim lands, Jews were required to wear a hat, the shape and color of which would serve to identify them as Jews. Well known in its time was the Judenhut , the medieval pointed Jewish hat by which Jews were identified, and which are clearly seen in both Jewish and Christian depictions of Jewish life.
The wearing of a double head covering-a kippah or yarmulke skullcap and hat-among the ultraorthodox, or a scullcap only, by orthodox Jews, evolved in nineteenth-century Europe and became part of the controversy between reformists and traditionalist groups.
Among some of the reformists, the skullcap is worn during prayer and other ceremonial occasions. As for the ultraorthdox, in order to express their opposition to the reform, they started to wear a skullcap and a hat on top of it. In the early twenty-first century, especially in Israeli society, covering of the head or not distinguishes between secular and observant Jews. The type of covering indicates socio-religious and ideological, even political affiliation.
For instance the kippah srugah , a crocheted skullcap, has become an identity mark of the National Religious community and political party. Apart from the inner Halakhic rules, Jewish costume was determined by restrictive decrees issued by the gentile authorities in the countries in which Jews lived in the diaspora. These laws required Jews to wear special garment items, prohibited them from wearing particular fabrics and colors, and obliged them to mark their dress with badges.
In Muslim lands, the edicts began with the Laws of Omar in the eighth century that required that all non-Muslims be distinguished by their external appearance, by their clothing, the external manifestation of their lower legal status as "infidels. These laws were the conceptual guidelines for practical restrictions imposed by different rulers.
The decrees did not deal with entire outfits, but pertained mainly to the colors and quality of fabrics, and sometimes to particular components of dress such as head gear or footwear. In Bukhara, the Jews had to wear ropelike belts as a distinction mark. Infidels were supposed to wear dark colors such as black or dark blue some places had specific colors for Jews and others for Christians. Green was reserved for Muslims because it is the holy color of Islam.
Jews were not allowed to use luxurious fabrics, as were enumerated in the edicts. There were restrictions pertaining to the cut and size of the garment. In Turkey, the size of the turban was of great significance-the larger the turban, the higher the rank of its wearer-thus the edicts restricted the length of the turban fabric and the width of the cloak permitted to Jews.
In Afghanistan in the first half of the twentieth century, Jewish men could only wear gray turbans. Similar restrictions were imposed in medieval Europe by the church councils. In , the Lateran Council issued the well-known dress restriction as a reaction to the forbidden mingling of Christians with Jews and Muslims:. Rubens, , p. These decrees also included the wearing of a badge. The badge differed in shape and color as well as in the place where it should be displayed, either on the right shoulder or on the hat.
In the duchies of Italy, a yellow patch was worn. In England, its shape was of the Tablets of the Law, and in Germany, the badge was a ring-shaped sign.
The Jews were also obliged to purchase these badges from the government. The royal tax collectors will collect the fee for the purchase of the badge" France, These edicts and restrictions were intended to mark the Jewish population and set them apart from others, thereby aiming at degrading and humiliating them.
The spirit of this distinction did not disappear altogether and was revived by Nazi Germany by imposing the yellow badge as a race discriminator. The reaction of the Jewish population to these laws took different forms. In many cases, as can be expected, it was resented, but in some instances, it was accepted positively as described by a traveler to the Ottoman empire in the seventeenth century: "As in religion they differ from others so they do in habit: in Christendom enforcedly, here in the Turkie voluntarily" Sandys, p.
Though this may not be accurate, it does acknowledge different reactions to the humiliating restrictions. These differentiating restrictions were accepted positively, as they met with the Halakha and the desire to differentiate themselves from others by their clothing.
In some cases, these restrictions were given different explanations and an inner symbolic interpretation. For example, Moroccan and Tunisian Jews and the Jews of Sana'a in Yemen held that the wearing of black, adapted by the Jews themselves, was considered as a sign of mourning commemorating the destruction of the Temple. There are several other signs commemorating the destruction that, according to Jewish law, one has to keep.
These restrictions were at times corroborated by inner communal regulations and sumptuary laws called takkanot. These regulations issued by Jewish communities referred mainly to women's attire, instructing them to refrain from wearing luxurious clothes-especially with gold decorations and opulent jewelery-mainly in the public domain. Their purposes were twofold: the first, to avoid arousing jealousy among non-Jews, as it was feared that excess finery in Jewish dress might bring about additional edicts by the authorities; the second, to avoid internal tensions between rich and poor families within Jewish communities.
These regulations limited excessive finery in weddings and other festive occasions but allowed some exceptions. Such rules and regulations provide very important historical sources for a meticulous study of dress codes in each community. From regulations pronounced by the rabbis of the community of Fez, Morocco, Velvet for dresses, even for linings, is forbidden to women and girls, with the exception of black velvet.
The bride may wear any kind of velvet under the canopy during her wedding … any type of skirt which is stiffened with a hope of wire or … other devices is forbidden to married and single women … even small children. They are not permitted to wear pants and tend to wear long skirts, covered necklines, long sleeves, and headscarves. Hasidic Jews consider a woman's natural hair to be a thing of great beauty, so many women are required to shave their head after getting married as a sign of ultimate fidelity.
Hasidic Judaism was founded in Eastern Europe, primarily the Poland and Ukraine regions, in the late 18th century. The traditional clothing stems primarily from Polish nobility standards of dress during this time. Many Orthodox men also wear a tzitzit, a four-pointed garment with fringes on the corners, underneath their shirt — sometimes the fringes hang out from the shirt, but sometimes they are not visible. Jewish men wearing kippot left , a shtreimel top right and black hats lower right.
Many Orthodox women eschew pants and instead stick to dresses and skirts. In addition, Orthodox women generally wear modest clothes that cover much of their bodies, although how much is covered varies dramatically from community to community. In some ultra-Orthodox communities, women are discouraged from wearing bright, attention-getting colors.
Once married, most Orthodox women cover their hair, whether with a hat, wig or scarf. The Torah says little about clothing, either descriptively or prescriptively. It also requires Jews to put fringes on the corners of a four-pointed garment Numbers , both as a way of identifying the Jew and reminder reminding the Jew to observe the mitzvot. On the other hand, the Torah provides extensive detail regarding the clothing of the priests, and particularly the High Priest , for their duties in the Tabernacle in the desert Exodus 28 , later adopted for the Temple in Jerusalem.
Skirts and blouses were the usual everyday attire for women, but were also worn on special occasions, and were no different from those worn by non-Jewish women. One exception was the vestl or vestl leybl, a kind of bodice popular in the eighteenth century. Worn on holidays, it was richly adorned with silver or gold embroidery. This bodice reached up to the neck and sometimes had a decorative lace collar. Its fastening was covered with a decorative band of material that attached at the neck and waist.
Polish Jewish women commonly wore the brusttukh in the eighteenth and nineteenth centuries. Earlier brusttukhs were broader and richly decorated; later ones were narrow and less elaborate. This item reached from the waist to the ground, and was often made of white batiste, decorated with colorful embroidery. Other aprons were made of colored silks. This last role of the apron was so important that even when the garment went out of style in the mid-nineteenth century, women continued to wear them under their skirts.
Low-heeled leather shoes were the norm. Tights, as they were for men, were white for holidays, and black or brown for everyday use, made of wool, cotton, or silk. Head coverings were items that for centuries served to distinguish Jewish women. Girls and unmarried women wore their hair long, in two braids. On holidays, they adorned themselves by weaving a flower or garland into their hair.
There was, however, one element of dress that a married woman would never part with, even at night, as we know from sources as early as the sixteenth century. This was the bonnet kupke, kopke, haybl tshepik , worn on the back of the head close to the scalp. The bonnet underwent many changes, and continued to be in style as late as the mid-nineteenth century. Mundane bonnets were made of inexpensive materials, but fancier ones were elaborately sewn from brocade or velvet and were decorated with pearls and gold or silver thread, often using the shpanyer arbet method.
When a woman left the house, she would also put on a veil—a shleyer —which was a stiff piece of tulle, lace, or other material that adorned the forehead and was tied in the back.
Wealthy women would put a slek on the veil—a construction made of precious stones or pearls. Poorer women, especially in Lithuania, would place a piece of stiff linen on their bonnets, tied in the back, with the ends of the veil draping onto their necks. Fatsheyle or patsheyle were worn in seventeenth-century Lithuania.
These were pieces of colored cloth shaped af terkish i. The dress described above, and variants thereof, was used in the sixteenth and seventeenth centuries.
It later faded from fashion but was revived in the nineteenth century. For everyday use, women would simply wear colored kerchiefs, either in solid colors or patterned, and made of linen, wool, or silk. The front part of the head, which was not covered by the bonnet, was concealed with a band of material—known as the horband or harband —to which imitation hair was sewn.
In time, this item increasingly resembled a hairstyle. In the mid-nineteenth century, a black cap was worn over a broader band with imitation hair. An older form that had already died out by the eighteenth century was the yamperke —a narrow band of material, often yellow or red, placed above the forehead and tied behind the head.
The fanciest headdress of Polish Jewish women was the shterntikhl and its variation in Lithuania known as the binda. It was first used during the late eighteenth century and became popular in the nineteenth; some families possessed one though it was no longer worn until the interwar period.
Both bands were stiff and sewn above the forehead. The upper part was usually simple and formed a diadem, while the lower part, with a zigzag edge, encircled the face closely and reached beyond the ears.
Long earrings accompanied this type of headdress. A more modest version was worn as late as the early twentieth century—a stiff diadem placed over the forehead.
This was a band of material lavishly decorated with embroidery and pearls, which used ribbons to tie it in the back. Married women also wore another type of headdress—the sheytl or wig. Jewish women used the sheytl as early as the seventeenth century, but it became widely worn only in the s despite the violent opposition of religious authorities numerous rabbinical responsa were issued on the matter. Tsarist legislation on Jewish dress codes contributed to its rise in popularity; a decree banned Jewish women from using traditional headdresses, yet allowed them to wear wigs.
In the lower classes, wigs made of thread were used, while those of wealthier women were made of natural hair, often modeled after the latest hairstyles.
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